A substantial number of PK–12 students struggle with literacy. For instance, on the 2024 National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) reading assessment, approximately 40% of fourth graders and 33% of eighth graders scored below basic (NAEP, 2024). Furthermore, some of these students also experience concurrent behavioral difficulties.
To some degree, literacy and behavioral difficulties influence each other. For instance, a student struggling to read may engage in inappropriate behavior to escape reading in class, or a student with behavioral difficulties may not be attending to critical parts of a reading lesson. Indeed, some research has found students with reading difficulties are more likely to have behavior problems and vice-versa (Morgan et al., 2008). Given this relationship, it is beneficial for educators to use instructional practices that support not only literacy but also student behavior.
Opportunities to Respond
Providing multiple opportunities to respond (OTR) is one potential option to address literacy and behavior difficulties. Broadly defined, OTRs occur when students respond to questions during instruction, such as all students vocally saying the letter sound of a letter presented on the board. Results from prior studies suggest improving OTRs can increase student engagement and decrease disruptive behavior (Common et al., 2020).
In this post, I detail how educators can implement an OTR intervention through a cycle of planning, measuring, and coaching. In addition, at the end of the post, I provide guidance on how to Measure Opportunities to Respond (MOTR) with an online application called MOTR-Cycle. This post and the online application build on a prior Iowa Reading Research Center post in which OTRs are defined and tips for implementation are provided.
Cycle: Planning, Measuring, and Coaching
Across prior studies on OTRs (Van Camp et al., 2020), several components have been used for planning, measuring, and coaching. These components include goal setting, performance feedback, problem-solving, and reinforcement. Each of these components is defined in the accompanying table. An individual teacher can complete these components to improve their use of OTRs. Similarly, an instructional coach can use these components during professional development sessions with teachers.
| Component | Definition for OTRs |
| Goal setting | Setting a rate of OTRs to achieve during instruction |
| Performance feedback | Measuring OTRs during instruction and presenting the number per lesson across time |
| Problem solving | Reflecting on the number of actual OTRs in relation to the goal, and determining changes if needed |
| Reinforcement | Celebrating growth in performance |
Planning an OTR Intervention
Schedule a specific number of minutes for an OTR intervention. Making instruction highly interactive can be a general priority for literacy instruction, but research suggests starting with smaller chunks of time specific to OTRs can be beneficial. In several studies, researchers have scheduled 15 minutes to 30 minutes for an OTR intervention (e.g., Cuticelli et al., 2016; MacSuga-Gage & Gage, 2015).
Next, set a goal for the number of OTRs within the scheduled time. Several studies have found positive effects for setting a goal of 3.0 OTRs per minute (MacSuga-Gage & Gage, 2015) or a goal range of 1.8 to 5.0 OTRs per minute (Cuticelli et al., 2016). The goal can change across time as needed. For example, a lower goal can be set initially (e.g., 1 OTR per minute) and then changed as progress is made (e.g., 3 OTRs per minute).
Finally, gather materials needed for the intervention. Students need curricula (e.g., books, slide decks, and paper handouts) with multiple questions or prompts for responses. A good starting place is to review current classroom curricula, but it may be necessary to create custom materials (e.g., a review activity of prior lesson content). In addition, a timer to keep track of the number of minutes and a way to count the number of OTRs are needed. This can be accomplished in both low-tech (e.g., wristwatch and tally marks on a notepad) or high-tech (e.g., the MOTR-Cycle application below) ways.
Access the MOTR-Cycle timer and counter here.
Here is a brief video with steps on how to use it.
Measuring OTRs During Intervention
At the beginning of the scheduled time, start a timer to keep track of the duration. Then, use a consistent, observable, and measurable definition of OTRs to ensure accurate counting of OTRs as they occur. Some prior studies have defined OTRs as consisting of one step (e.g., MacSuga-Gage & Gage, 2015): An OTR occurs when a teacher provides an opportunity to respond that is academic in nature and related to the presented curriculum.
An OTR can be a vocal question from the teacher or simple physical action (e.g., pointing to a letter on the board). It can be directed to an individual student or to a small or whole group. The following table includes three classroom scenarios and indicates how many OTRs occur in each scenario according to the one-step definition.
| Example Scenario | Number of One-Step OTRs | Rationale |
Students Looking at a map of the United States on their computer screen Teacher “Which states border Lake Erie?” Students Students raise their hands, and the teacher calls on a student for the answer. | 1 | The teacher asks a specific question that is academic in nature and aligned to the lesson. |
Students Looking at several letters on the board Teacher “Get ready to say each sound as I point to the letter.” Teacher points to “a.” Students “/aaaaa/” Teacher Teacher points to “m.” Students “/mmmmmm/” | 2 | Each time the teacher points at a letter is an opportunity for students to respond (i.e., point to “a” and point to “m”). |
Teacher “Take out last night’s homework.” Students Students take out folders from their desks. | 0 | Although students are responding, it is not directly tied to the curriculum, and it is not instructional in nature. |
Using a one-step definition assumes that students are indeed responding to each question presented. However, it is possible that teachers are presenting OTRs but with little interaction from students. In this case, consider using a more complex definition of OTRs that has three steps.
In a three-step definition, OTRs include not only the first step (1) a question or prompt from a teacher, but also two additional steps: (2) a student response and (3) teacher feedback—praise of a correct response and corrective feedback for an incorrect response. The following table includes two classroom scenarios and indicates how many OTRs occur in each scenario according to the three-step definition.
| Example Scenario | Number of Three-Step OTRs | Rationale |
Students Looking at a map of the United States on their computer screen Teacher “Which states border Lake Erie?” Students Students raise their hands, and the teacher calls on a student for the answer. Individual student successfully answers. | 0 | The teacher asks a specific question that is academic in nature AND students respond; however, the final step (teacher feedback) is missing. |
Students Looking at a map of the United States on their computer screen Teacher “Which states border Lake Erie?” Students Students raise their hands, and the teacher calls on a student for the answer. Individual student successfully answers. Teacher “Great, that’s correct!” | 1 | All three steps of an OTR are present: (1) question, (2) response, and (3) feedback. |
Coaching After an OTR Intervention Session
After each OTR intervention session, calculate the rate of OTRs per minute by dividing the total number of OTRs by the session minutes. For example, if a total of 10 OTRs are observed in a brief, 5-minute session, then the rate is 2 OTRs per minute. As a next step, graph the rate of OTRs on a time-series figure with the vertical, y-axis of OTR rate and the horizontal, x-axis of calendar days. A fillable PDF version of the graph can be found in the Supplemental Resources section at the end of the post.
Graphing the number of OTRs across time shows overall performance and informs more precise problem-solving. Specifically compare data from that day’s session to the goal as well as the overall trend of performance. If an upward trend in performance is happening and/or the goal is achieved, then reinforce and celebrate! This can include acknowledgement and other creative options, such as purchasing a preferred drink from a café.
If performance falls below the goal, look for ways to improve the OTR intervention. There are a variety of possible alterations, but two potential options include changes to (a) question formats and (b) response modalities. As noted in a prior OTR post, OTRs are best suited for short questions in which students identify an item (e.g., see the letter “a” and say its accompanying sound) or complete a fill-in-the-blank item (e.g., fill in the missing noun of a sentence). In addition, some response modalities (i.e., the way students respond) are quicker than others. For instance, it may be beneficial to have students vocally respond prior to writing a response in order to both save time and maximize the possible number of OTRs.
Other Considerations
An OTR intervention is a supplement to core instruction. As an OTR intervention is implemented, it is important to consider other types of supports needed for effective instruction and intervention. For instance, close monitoring and changes to classroom management techniques may be needed to promote both literacy and behavioral development. Indeed, evidence suggests that robust reading interventions and behavioral supports are needed to fully support students with concurrent reading and behavioral difficulties (Roberts et al., 2019).
Through a cycle of planning, measuring, and coaching, an intervention to improve the rate of OTRs may result in more interactive literacy lessons and increases in student engagement. The accompanying IRRC MOTR-Cycle application to measure the rate of OTRs can help implementation and problem-solving. Visit the application to learn more.
Supplemental Resource
Opportunities to Respond Over Time Graph
References
Common, E. A., Lane, K. L., Cantwell, E. D., Brunsting, N. C., Oakes, W. P., Germer, K. A., & Bross, L. A. (2020). Teacher-delivered strategies to increase students’ opportunities to respond: A systematic methodological review. Behavioral Disorders, 45(2), 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742919828310
Cuticelli, M., Collier-Meek, M., & Coyne, M. (2016). Increasing the quality of tier 1 reading instruction: Using performance feedback to increase opportunities to respond during implementation of a core reading program. Psychology in Schools, 53, 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21884
MacSuga-Gage, A. S., & Gage, N. A. (2015). Student-level effects of increased teacher-directed opportunities to respond. Journal of Behavioral Education, 24, 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-015-9223-2
MacSuga-Gage, A. S., & Simonsen, B. (2015). Examining the effects of teacher-directed opportunities to respond on student outcomes: A systematic review of the literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 38(2), 211–239. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/etc.2015.0009
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Tufis, P. A., & Sperling, R. A. (2008). Are reading and behavior problems risk factors for each other? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(5), 417–436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219408321123
National Assessment of Educational Progress (2024). Data tools: NAEP data explorer. The Nation’s Report Card. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/ndecore/xplore/NDE
Roberts, G. J., Cho, E., Garwood, J. D., Goble, G. H., Robertson, T., & Hodges, A. (2020). Reading interventions for students with reading and behavioral difficulties: A meta-analysis and evaluation of co-occurring difficulties. Educational Psychology Review, 32, 17–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09485-1
Van Camp, A. M., Wehby, J. H., Martin, B. L. N., Wright, J. R., & Sutherland, K. S. (2020). Increasing opportunities to respond to intensify academic and behavioral interventions: A meta-analysis. School Psychology Review, 49(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1717369
